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Fourth Zhili-Fengtian War
The 4th Zhili-Fengtian War was a conflict fought in 1928 between the Qing Empire, backed by Germany, and the Fengtian and Shanxi Cliques, backed by Japan. Efforts to prevent the war escalating led to the Shanghai Conference, which subsequently reunified most of China under the Qing. Cause In the Third Zhili-Fengtian War, Yan Xishan had received payment from Germany in return for not notifying Zhang Zuolin of Wu Peifu's advance towards Beijing. To his surprise, Wu took the city and gained a decisive victory for his Zhili Clique. This left Yan in a precarious position where Zhili domination of China had reached the point it posed a clear threat to the neutrality Shanxi held for almost a decade. The situation was made particularly dangerous due to Yan providing refuge for remnants of Feng Yuxiang's "National Army". Yan had hoped to use Feng's forces support his position, and perhaps release them later to divide his enemies when the time was right, but now those advantages seemed overshadowed by the possibility the Jade Martial would move against Shanxi to destroy his old enemies. These fears turned Yan to Zhang Zuolin, which seemed to offer Zhang great advantages. Not only does Shanxi lie close to Wu Peifu's personal headquarters in Luoyang, but Luoyang is also close to Zhengzhou, which is a nexus for the western half of China's railway network. With Zhang Zongchang already blocking the Jinpu line in the east, Yan would only need to take Zhengzhou to split the Zhili in two. Sun Chuanfang's reinforcements would never be able to reach the Fengtian border, giving Zhang a chance to break through at Shanhai. After a time, Yan accepted the offer of Japanese agents. Previously Zhang Zongchang had relied on Zhang Zuolin's excellent logistic network for access to food and ammunition, but with his province isolated, the only easy supply route was through the German port of Tsingtau (Qingdao). Though he could increase the amount of food he requisitioned from peasants, and an arsenal at Jinan produced ammunition, neither would be sufficient to supply all Shandong's troops. The German government soon noticed the increased amount of supplies moving through Tsingtau, and threatened to cut it off if he broke neutrality. Seeing no other option, Zhang Zongchang was forced to agree. The plan was to repeat the maneuvers that were key to Wu Peifu's defeat back in 1924, mainly the seizure of the Jinpu and Jinhan lines connecting the north and south of China. With no reinforcements coming, Fengtian forces could sweep across the northern plains, obliterating the Northern Zhili Clique, and giving Zhang enough ground to negotiate for national unification, with Fengtian at the core. Course of the War In early March 1928 Shanxi declared the Qing government illegitimate, marking the start of the 4th Zhili-Fengtian War. Shanxi’s involvement in the war had been planned as a surprise, but German operatives in Shanghai co-operating with Wu Peifu and the (now) Imperial Army had cracked Japanese encryption months prior, granting them full access to communication between Japan and its allied warlords. Armed with advance warnings, Wu was ready to inflict a decisive strike against the Fengtian. Yan Xishan's strike at Wu’s personal headquarters at Luoyang and the railway junction at Zhengzhou was intercepted, cut off and destroyed. Moves to break the Jinhan line further east were also repulsed. Once Fengtian had fully mobilized, the war of mobility in the west was almost over. Relying on Germany to allow his province to be supplied, Zongchang was unable to act, while Tang Jiyao's forces were bogged down in Yunnan's mountains and plateaus. With victory nowhere in sight, the horrified Japanese leadership increased their marital aid to Zhang, and Germany responded with aid to the Zhili. By April, German-piloted aircraft were patrolling the Beijing skies, and Japanese divisions wearing Chinese uniforms were attempting a breakthrough in Shanhaiguan. Hoping to push the war in their favour, both sides continued to escalate. Shanghai Conference The mobilization of forces most of Sun's forces against Fengtian led to a major shift in the quality of troops left to maintain order in his League of Eight Provinces. Generally with little training, most were former bandits or roving mercenaries, resulting in a breakdown of law and order in parts of eastern China. By July, foreigners were common targets of bandits, KMT holdouts, and “sword societies”. When a passenger train with foreign occupants was captured by bandits outside Shanghai, knowledge of the incident was passed onto the authorities. No unusual Japanese response was made. With almost full access to Japanese communication between China and the Home Islands, German intelligence in Shanghai thought themselves almost omniscient. However, the Japanese military, without approval from Tokyo, occupied areas outside of Shanghai, to rescue the passengers of the Jade Wind Express. Caught off guard, within hours the Chinese and German soldiers in the city began began battling the Japanese. Over the next two days, war seemed likely while the governments in Nanjing, Tokyo and Berlin scrambled to avoid it. A solution emerged when the USA offered to mediate, while a ceasefire around Shanghai was implemented. American mediation came at a cost, namely their insistence on maintaining the Open Door Policy, so all nations could trade in China equally, and an end not just the current war in the nation, but all conflicts in the region. The preliminary talks resulted in bringing in all countries with treaty commitments in China, though as the recognised British government was in exile it was restricted to an observer role. The conference into a complete restructuring in how the outside world interacted with China. It created an International Mandate, reliant on Japanese desire to avoid international isolation, German desire to expand its influence in China, and American aspirations for maintaining its Chinese trade without popular support for military excursions. The Legation Cities, the more common name for the new International Mandate, was to be administered by a Consular Council, manned by international diplomats. It exists as an expansion of the earlier International Settlements in Shanghai, now including Tianjin and various southern coastal cities, each one retaining its historic national districts but operating under a shared governor or local municipal council. Neutral zones were established around the cities, which no armed Chinese soldier may enter. The hope was that, unable to fight over the cities, conflicts between Chinese Warlords would largely cease. An armistice was also signed, formally ending the 4th Zhili-Fengtian war, while the Shanxi and Yunnan cliques finally recognized the Qing government. Fengtian stood as the only warlord clique not to rejoin the Qing Empire, due to Japanese influence. Later it would found a rival national government, using the remnants of the fallen Beiyang republic. Category:Chinese-related topics Category:History